Women's Education Under Two Taliban Regimes: Resistance, Resilience and Remote Learning (1996–2024)

Abstract

This study examines women’s education in Afghanistan under two Taliban regimes: 1996–2001 and 2021–2024. Using qualitative analysis of policy documents and reports from NGOs/UNESCO, it explores how women resisted, adapted, and sustained learning despite systemic bans. Under Taliban I, formal schooling for girls was prohibited, yet underground “home schools” and cross-border education in Pakistan/Iran emerged as acts of resistance. After 2021, Taliban II expanded restrictions to secondary and higher education, prompting new forms of resilience through remote learning. Online platforms, WhatsApp classes, and international scholarship programs became critical survival strategies. The paper argues that women’s education in Afghanistan cannot be understood only as victimhood; it reflects continuous resilience and tactical innovation against political suppression. Findings contribute to debates on education in conflict, gendered resistance, and the role of digital tools in safeguarding learning rights. The study concludes that remote learning, while limited, has redefined educational access and offers lessons for other contexts of educational exclusion.